Libraries & Technology
Evolution, Impact, and the Future
April 24, 2025
Long before self-checkout became a fixture in supermarkets and airports, libraries were quietly leading the way in self-service innovation. The adoption of barcode and magnetic strip systems in the 1970s and 1980s marked a shift toward more efficient circulation processes. By the early 1990s, libraries in Australia and the United States were piloting some of the world’s first self-service kiosks, laying the foundation for fully automated borrowing and returns.
This transformation wasn’t fueled by novelty, but by necessity. Libraries faced growing user demand, limited staffing, and rising expectations for convenience. Technology offered a way to meet those pressures without compromising the public mission of access, equity, and service.
Understanding the evolution of self-service—from the early barcode scanners to today’s RFID-powered systems—offers valuable insight into how libraries continue to adapt. As institutions tasked with both preservation and progress, libraries have consistently positioned themselves not behind technological change but ahead of it.
The Early Days of Library Automation
Barcode and Magnetic Strip Systems
The introduction of barcode systems marked one of the earliest advances in library automation. These systems allowed books and user cards to be uniquely identified and scanned using optical readers, streamlining checkout and reducing errors.
The Plessey Library Pen system, implemented in 1972 at Kentish Town Library in London, was among the first to use barcode-based identification. Other UK libraries—including those in Luton, Oxford, and Sutton—followed suit. Soon after, the Telepen system was developed, allowing for more complex alphanumeric data capture (Tedd, 2019).
In the United States, adoption gained momentum in the 1980s. Libraries like Oakland University began barcoding collections in 1986. The NOTIS system at Vanderbilt University was another early example, integrating barcoded items and user cards into its circulation workflows (Breeding, 2009).
Even so, the process required precision. Each item had to be scanned individually, and labels had to be perfectly aligned. A misread or misaligned barcode could bring the transaction to a halt. Yet these systems significantly improved processing speed and accuracy compared to manual methods, boosting staff productivity and patron satisfaction.
Oakland University began barcoding its collection in 1986, completing the effort by February 1987. Source: Kresge Library Archives, Oakland University.
Magnetic Security and Tattle-Tape
Yet, while scanning became faster, libraries faced another pressing concern: security. In parallel with barcode adoption, many institutions turned to magnetic strip systems like Tattle-Tape, introduced in 1970 at the Saint Paul Public Library by 3M (now part of Bibliotheca).
Embedded discreetly inside books, these thin strips could be magnetized or demagnetized to trigger alarms when unauthorized items pass through exit gates—typically outfitted with electromagnetic sensors (Rovira Hazlett, 2014).
The system became widely adopted throughout the 1980s and 1990s, particularly in libraries that allowed patrons to browse open stacks freely. By the early 1990s, Tattle-Tape security was already protecting libraries in more than 40 countries. It enabled staff to focus less on monitoring and more on service while reducing theft in a non-intrusive way. Many institutions also used it to extend operating hours with fewer staff on duty.
In 1997, 3M introduced the Tattle-Tape Application System Model 611, automating the process of applying strips to library materials and increasing processing speed. Different types of Tattle-Tape were developed to accommodate various library materials, including double-sided CDs and DVDs, which led to the creation of Tattle-Tape H1 Security Hub Markers for media protection.
Used alongside barcode systems, Tattle-Tape required dedicated equipment at circulation desks to desensitize the strip during checkout and reactivate it upon return. This integration of security and automation laid essential groundwork for the entirely self-service models that would follow.
The main entrance of the George Latimer Central Library in downtown St. Paul—home to the first-ever installation of Tattle-Tape security system in 1970. Photo by Ken Wolter.
Early Self-Checkout Machines
By the early 1990s, the pieces were in place for libraries to experiment with true self-service technology. These early systems brought together barcode readers and Tattle-Tape desensitizers, allowing patrons to scan their own library card and materials, deactivate security features, and complete the checkout process independently—often for the first time.
One of the earliest examples was the 3M Model 5210, launched commercially in 1992 and piloted at the University of Western Sydney in Australia (Leith & Roberts, 1994). The kiosk operated using early self-checkout software that would eventually evolve into quickConnect, establishing the foundational hardware and software integration for library self-service. The system gave users a new level of autonomy and represented a shift in how libraries envisioned the borrowing experience.
The SelfCheck System quickly gained traction in the United States, with early adopters like the Los Angeles Public Library implementing the technology as early as July 1996, reporting positive feedback from both staff and patrons. By the late 1990s, libraries such as Tulsa City-County Library and St. Louis Public Library credited SelfCheck systems with reducing checkout lines, freeing up staff, and increasing user satisfaction.
By 2000, SelfCheck adoption had expanded internationally, with installations across Europe, Australia, and North America. The systems were celebrated for their intuitive interface—so much so that in Tulsa, patrons reportedly asked, “When is that machine coming back?” after a demo unit was removed.
The introduction of machines like the 5210 marked a turning point. No longer confined to the staff desk, checking out materials became more personalized, efficient, and increasingly intuitive. These early efforts laid critical groundwork for the more advanced systems that would soon follow—including RFID-enabled kiosks and mobile self-checkout technologies that emerged in the 2000s.
30 years in the making
selfCheck 2500
selfCheck 3000
selfCheck 500
R-Series Desktop
smartServe 100
smartServe 100 Pluto
smartServe 600 Orion
V-series generation
8210
6210
5220
cloudCheck mobile
cloudCheck tablet
selfCheck 1000
smartServe 200
R-Series generation
smartServe 700 Venus
smartServe 400
Paragon
7210
4210
5210
Bibliotheca self-service product timeline.
The Shift to RFID
As libraries refined their service models in the late 1990s, a new technology emerged that would redefine circulation: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID). Unlike barcodes, RFID tags didn’t require direct line-of-sight and could process multiple items at once, making checkout faster and inventory control more efficient.
The National Library Board of Singapore was among the first to embrace RFID on a large scale, implementing the technology in 1998 (BiblioAsia, 2020). In the U.S., early adopters in the 2000s began replacing manual checkouts with RFID-powered self-service, reducing friction at the circulation desk.
One of the earliest and most high-profile U.S. implementations occurred at the Lied Library at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, which opened in January 2001. The facility was equipped with the 3M Digital Identification System, the first RFID-based system integrated with Tattle-Tape security and library automation tools in an academic setting.
For patrons, RFID made borrowing effortless: entire stacks of books could be placed on a reader pad and checked out within seconds. For staff, the time saved meant more opportunities for programming, engagement, and community outreach (Breeding, 2009).
At Mary Riley Styles Public Library in Virginia, RFID tags were used on 27,000 items as part of a broader push to improve circulation efficiency and shelf management. Staff used the Digital Library Assistant (DLA) to scan shelves, identify missing or misplaced materials, and streamline weeding and inventory processes.
As costs fell and standards matured, RFID became the default choice for library automation by the 2010s. Today, it powers not only self-checkouts but also lockers, mobile apps, and automated sorting systems.
“The question isn’t whether to automate, but how to automate with purpose.”
— Shahid & Sehar (2020)
Balancing Automation and the Human Touch
The rise of automation in libraries is no longer a question of if, but how. As self-service becomes the norm, the true challenge lies in integration: maintaining the library’s identity as a place of connection, learning, and public trust while embracing technology that supports evolving needs.
Bittencourt and Bianchi (2022) argue that automation, when implemented thoughtfully, doesn’t displace librarians—it empowers them. By handling routine transactions, technology frees staff to focus on what matters most: engaging with the community, running literacy programs, and ensuring equitable access to information.
At its core, self-service is about access. For decades, Bibliotheca’s solutions have removed barriers, given patrons greater autonomy, and freed library staff to focus on what matters most: engagement, education, and inclusion.
Years before grocery stores introduced self-checkout, libraries were already pioneering self-service. Pictured: the selfCheck 3000 at the Forest Park branch of the Cincinnati & Hamilton County Public Library. Photo by Ross Van Pelt.
More Time for Patron Engagement
Automation streamlines circulation, freeing staff to lead literacy programs, expand community outreach, and ensure equitable access for all. With Bibliotheca’s self-service technology, libraries can:
- Promote events and services – Turn selfCheck screens into real-time communication hubs, keeping patrons informed.
- Reinforce the library’s identity – Customize interfaces with logos, themes, and messaging to reflect each library’s unique voice. Tailor visual elements and language to resonate with the specific communities you serve.
- Transform passive screens into engagement tools – With uniFi+, libraries can maximize screen real estate for storytelling, announcements, and outreach.
- Support fundraising efforts – selfCheck kiosks can seamlessly integrate donation campaigns, making it easier for patrons to contribute.
- Expand digital collections – With cloudLibrary by OCLC, patrons can browse, borrow, and place holds on eBooks in just a few taps.
- Offer expert book recommendations – Through an exclusive partnership with NoveList, selfCheck kiosks provide personalized reading suggestions at checkout. These recommendations are printed on the receipt, offering patrons a curated “ticket” for their next visit.
- Simplify returns and boost recirculation – smartShelf borrow lets patrons return and borrow in one step. Recently returned items are instantly available for others—ideal for Lucky Day titles and themed collections tied to holidays or special events.
“Patrons’ satisfaction with self-service public libraries depends on the balance between autonomy and available human support.”
— Zhang et al. (2022)
More Access for Every Patron
Whether it’s a patron with mobility challenges, someone who prefers minimal social interaction, or a busy professional needing extended hours, libraries must meet users where they are.
- Flexible Library Access – open+ extends library hours beyond traditional schedules, while remoteLocker offers greater convenience.
- Visual Accessibility – Adjustable fonts, high-contrast themes, and text-to-speech (TTS) capabilities ensure a seamless experience for all users.
- Cultural Inclusion – quickConnect supports 74 languages, making navigation intuitive for diverse communities.
- Physical Accessibility – Adjustable-height selfCheck kiosks and wayfinding features help patrons of all abilities navigate the library independently.
- Automated Returns – The flexAMH series provides a drop-and-go return solution, including drive-thru-style external return points.
- Security Without Barriers – RFID gate Ultra ensures a secure yet welcoming library environment with wide aisles for wheelchairs and strollers.
At its best, automation does more than improve efficiency—it enhances inclusivity, fosters a more welcoming environment, and ensures libraries remain relevant in a changing world.
A patron borrows materials using the selfCheck 1000 kiosk at the Cincinnati & Hamilton County Public Library’s Main Library — part of a broader shift toward greater user independence. Photo by Ross Van Pelt.
Real-World Impact
Libraries are transforming their communities with Bibliotheca’s solutions, streamlining operations, expanding access, and creating deeper connections between libraries and the people they serve.
Self-Checkout Technology
At Park Ridge Public Library, near Chicago, self-service adoption has been a game-changer. Faced with increasing circulation demands, the library implemented Bibliotheca’s selfCheck kiosks and RFID solutions, significantly reducing the workload for check-ins.
According to Anastasia Rachmaciej, Patron Services Manager, the library previously processed 60,000 items manually each month, a physically exhausting task for the team. With RFID, the workflow has been transformed, allowing staff to focus on what truly matters—serving patrons.
Three months after the transition, 90% of checkouts were done through self-service, a number that has since grown to 97%.
At Aurora Public Library District, self-service adoption has helped the library serve a growing community without overwhelming staff. Today, 88% of patrons choose self-checkout over the traditional desk, freeing up employees to focus on research assistance, programming, and outreach. “Being involved with the community, we found customers needing self-checks, not wanting to wait in line just to do a checkout when, really, they could do it themselves,” says Yiota Piraino, Senior Manager of Circulation.
Technology has also reshaped how patrons experience the library itself. Miriam Meza-Gotto, Director of Marketing and Communications, shares, “And the self-check, from a marketing perspective, has also been really helpful as we educate our customers about multilingual options; that they can press a button and it’ll translate the kiosk for them, so that they can navigate it themselves.”
At Aurora Public Library District, 88% of patrons opt for self-checkout, streamlining borrowing while keeping staff free for deeper engagement.
Extended Access
With extended access technology, many libraries are now open beyond staffed hours, giving patrons the flexibility to visit at their convenience. In 2017, Gwinnett County Public Library in Georgia became the first library in the United States to implement open+, Bibliotheca’s extended access solution.
Since then, the program has grown steadily. Today, half of its branches offer early morning and late evening hours without requiring additional staff. “One of the things that we really wanted to do was provide expanded hours of operation, but we didn’t get funding to add additional staff, so we had to figure out ways to do that. The ability at the open+ branches to essentially be available from 8 o’clock in the morning ‘til 10 o’clock at night is a huge boon to our community,” said Charles Pace, the library’s Executive Director.
In its first year, 1,198 patrons used extended hours. In 2024, nearly 45,000 have taken advantage of the service.
In Mesa, Arizona, the library has taken the concept further. The Mesa Express Library, located in Monterey Park, is one of the few fully self-service libraries in the country. Patrons use their library cards and PINs to enter, borrow materials, and return books—all without on-site staff.
“We have heard a lot of positive comments from our patrons and community members in the surrounding neighborhood, because it is a very kind of hyper-local experience. What was interesting is that the non-traditional library users, or those who didn’t typically use the library, were intrigued and interested in the Express Library concept and this self-service location. I heard several comments of, ‘I would use that,’ or ‘that’s interesting and I would want to check that out.’ We didn’t necessarily expect that feedback, but it’s drawing potential new users who don’t use traditional library services,” said Polly Bonnett, the Library Director.
Mesa Express Library brings self-service access to the community, offering checkouts, returns, and digital resources in a fully unstaffed, technology-driven space.
EXPANDING LIBRARY ACCESS
With remoteLocker technology, libraries are reaching patrons in even the most remote locations, ensuring that geography is no longer a barrier to books and resources. In Summit County, Utah, a remoteLocker now serves the town of Henefer, which previously had no public library.
“If you have a code, you can access the remoteLocker 24 hours a day,” said Dan Compton, the Library’s Director. “It’s incredible. Henefer is a town that has never had a public library, and now they have access to anything in our collection at any time. That’s more access than we can provide anywhere else in the county.”
Before remoteLocker, Henefer residents had to travel over 10 miles to borrow books. Now, they have 24/7 library access right in town.
In Australia’s Blue Mountains, where small towns are scattered across rugged terrain, the library system faced a different challenge: reaching communities isolated by natural barriers. The installation of remoteLockers, combined with selfCheck kiosks and RFID upgrades, has enabled libraries to provide easier access to books and materials across the region.
According to Vicki Edmunds, director of the Blue Mountains Library, remoteLockers have strengthened the connection between libraries and rural communities. “It’s definitely worth it, and seeing the excitement from staff once they realize that everything works, and the community response to it is really good, too. So, my advice is: have your vision, and just keep plugging away.”
Blue Mountains Library expands access with remoteLockers and RFID technology, ensuring residents in remote areas can borrow and return materials anytime.
AUTOMATED RETURNS, SMARTER SERVICE
At Spanish Fork Public Library, automation is reshaping efficiency. When the library moved into a new facility, Director Scott Aylett saw an opportunity to eliminate manual check-ins and allow staff to focus on more meaningful interactions.
Aylett noted that before the transition, staff spent hours manually scanning thousands of returned items each day. With RFID and automated sorting, the library has significantly streamlined its operations, enabling staff to dedicate more time to programming and patron support. The upgrade included Automated Materials Handling (AMH) technology, self-check kiosks, and RFID tagging.
“We’ve been really pleased with the transition over to RFID and AMH,” Aylett says, “and we’ve been really pleased with the support that we get from Bibliotheca, especially the AMH team. Their support is fantastic, we love working with them. And we like that we don’t feel like we’re just another number. I see Bibliotheca reps at different conferences and whatnot, and they know us, they remember us. Our rep was here recently, and we spent time with him. We appreciate that Bibliotheca is a global company, but we don’t feel like it’s global because of the kind of attention that we get when we need it.”
New library cards issued in the first year after moving to the new, technology-equipped facility.
At the Mohammed Bin Rashid Library in Dubai, automation is being implemented on a massive scale. Spanning 66,000 square meters, the state-of-the-art facility efficiently handles high book circulation using the flexAMH and bulkSeparator system, which automates sorting, check-in, and security of returned materials.
The library’s advanced automation system manages a vast collection of over 1.5 million print and digital books. Bibliotheca’s flexAMH and bulkSeparator enhance efficiency by seamlessly processing check-ins, securing items, and directing them to their designated locations across multiple floors.
Mohammed Bin Rashid Library leverages automated sorting and robotic retrieval to manage its extensive collection.
The Future of Library Service
From Utah to Dubai, from quiet rural towns to dense urban centers, libraries are changing—not just in how they operate but also in how they connect with the people they serve.
Automation is making libraries more efficient. With circulation handled seamlessly, staff spends less time processing materials and more time leading literacy programs, assisting researchers, and building relationships with their communities.
The next phase is already taking shape. Extended hours, personalized services, and flexible access points are redefining what it means for a library to be open. As we’ve seen, these possibilities include self-service kiosks, pickup lockers, and fully automated branches.
Libraries have always been about access. As technology broadens that access, their role—far from diminishing—only becomes more essential.
Spread the Word
References
BiblioAsia. (2020). Looking back at Queenstown Library’s 50 years. National Library Board Singapore.
Bittencourt, B. R., & Bianchi, I. S. (2022). A percepção sobre as tecnologias de autoatendimento e trabalho em bibliotecas universitárias. Revista de Gestão e Avaliação Educacional, 11(20).
Breeding, M. (2009). Circulation technologies from past to future. Library Technology Reports, 45(2), 5–40.
ISO. (2014). Information and documentation — RFID in libraries — Part 1: Data elements and general guidelines for implementation (ISO 28560-1:2014). International Organization for Standardization.
Leith, A., & Roberts, A. (1994). Planning for the 3M Patron Self Check System: Re-barcoding an academic library collection. Australian Academic & Research Libraries, 25(1), 49–58.
Rovira Hazlett, D. (2014). Security Solutions – Product Spotlight. Library Journal, 139(5), 38–40.
Shahid, A., & Sehar, N. (2020). Implementation of UHF-RFID technology in an academic library of Pakistan: A case study. Library Philosophy and Practice, 4273.
Tedd, L. A. (2019). Library management systems in the UK: 1960s–1980s.Alexandria: The Journal of National and International Library and Information Issues, 29(2–3), 113–125.
Zhang, Y., Chiu, D. K. W., Jiang, T., & Ho, K. K. W. (2022). Patrons’ satisfaction with self-service public libraries: A demographic study. The Library Quarterly, 92(2), 188–206.
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